Aluminum Bus Bars for EV Fast Chargers: Thermal Expansion Joint Design Best Practices

Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Overview of Aluminum Bus Bars in EV Fast Chargers
3. Thermal Expansion in Aluminum: Fundamentals and Challenges
4. Thermal Expansion Joint Design: Best Practices and Considerations
5. Material Properties and Design Criteria for Aluminum Bus Bars
6. Case Studies and Real-World Examples
   • 6.1 Offshore Wind Turbine Case Study and Lessons for EV Chargers
   • 6.2 Additional Real-World Examples
7. Design Challenges and Future Trends
8. Conclusion
9. References

1. Introduction

The rapid expansion of electric vehicles (EVs) and the increasing need for fast charging solutions have spurred significant innovation in electrical components. Among these components, aluminum bus bars play a critical role in EV fast chargers. These bus bars are responsible for handling high currents and ensuring minimal power loss. In EV fast chargers, efficiency and reliability are of utmost importance. One design challenge that engineers frequently address is the thermal expansion that occurs during operation. Aluminum bus bars experience significant temperature changes, which lead to expansion and contraction. If these thermal stresses are not managed well, they can compromise the performance and durability of the charging system.

Thermal expansion joints provide a reliable solution for accommodating these changes. They maintain the integrity of the bus bar assembly and ensure that the system can tolerate repeated cycles of thermal expansion and contraction. In this article, we discuss best practices in designing thermal expansion joints for aluminum bus bars used in EV fast chargers. We examine the fundamentals of aluminum’s thermal properties, delve into detailed design criteria, and explore real-world examples that illustrate how proper joint design can enhance system performance.

We base our discussion on recent research findings and data from reputable sources such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). We also explore case studies that highlight the application of these best practices in similar industries, including insights drawn from the offshore wind turbine sector. These examples help to provide a comprehensive view of how thermal expansion challenges are addressed in high-demand electrical systems.

Elka Mehr Kimiya is a leading manufacturer of Aluminium rods, alloys, conductors, ingots, and wire in the northwest of Iran equipped with cutting-edge production machinery. Committed to excellence, we ensure top-quality products through precision engineering and rigorous quality control.

2. Overview of Aluminum Bus Bars in EV Fast Chargers

Electric vehicle fast chargers demand a robust and efficient electrical system to handle high currents with minimal losses. Aluminum bus bars form the backbone of these systems. Their role is to distribute electrical current effectively, which is essential to support the fast charging process. Aluminum, with its excellent conductivity-to-weight ratio and cost-effectiveness, has become a material of choice in this application.

The Role of Bus Bars

Bus bars serve as conductive pathways that connect various components in an electrical system. They distribute electrical current and serve as an interconnection element between power sources and loads. In EV fast chargers, bus bars must handle currents that can exceed several hundred amperes. This high current load requires that the bus bars not only conduct electricity efficiently but also withstand the mechanical stresses and thermal fluctuations that occur during charging cycles.

Advantages of Aluminum

Aluminum offers several benefits when used in bus bar applications:

• High Conductivity: Aluminum has a good conductivity profile, which makes it suitable for high-current applications.
• Light Weight: Compared to copper, aluminum is lighter. This property is important in applications where weight reduction is a key consideration.
• Cost-Effective: Aluminum is more abundant and less expensive than copper. This cost advantage helps reduce overall production costs.
• Thermal Conductivity: Aluminum effectively dissipates heat, a critical factor when the bus bars experience high thermal loads.

The advantages of aluminum come with design challenges that must be addressed. Among these challenges is the issue of thermal expansion, which arises from the inherent properties of aluminum when exposed to temperature fluctuations.

Real-World Implementation

In EV fast chargers, the design of the aluminum bus bars must be optimized to balance electrical performance with mechanical durability. For instance, when a fast charger operates at high current levels, the bus bars heat up. The thermal expansion that follows can lead to mechanical stresses that, if unmitigated, cause premature wear or even failure of the system. Engineers have increasingly turned to thermal expansion joint designs to handle these issues, ensuring the bus bars maintain their integrity over prolonged operational periods.

A study conducted by researchers at the NREL reported that using aluminum bus bars with integrated thermal expansion joints improved system reliability by up to 15% over designs that did not incorporate such features. This data highlights the importance of precise design and engineering in the creation of sustainable, high-performance EV charging solutions.

3. Thermal Expansion in Aluminum: Fundamentals and Challenges

Thermal expansion is a natural phenomenon where materials change size in response to temperature variations. Aluminum, like all metals, expands when heated and contracts when cooled. This behavior, quantified by the thermal expansion coefficient, requires careful management in systems where temperature fluctuations are significant.

The Thermal Expansion Coefficient

Aluminum has a thermal expansion coefficient of approximately 23 x 10^-6 per degree Celsius (°C). This means that for every degree increase in temperature, a one-meter aluminum bar will expand by 23 micrometers. Although this change may seem small, repeated heating and cooling cycles can lead to stress accumulation, which impacts the structural integrity of the bus bar.

Table 1: Thermal Expansion Coefficient Comparison

The table above shows the differences between aluminum, copper, and steel. Designers often choose aluminum for its balance of weight, cost, and conductivity, even if its thermal expansion is higher than that of copper.

Impact of Thermal Expansion on Bus Bar Systems

Thermal expansion can have a significant impact on the performance of bus bar systems in EV fast chargers. When a bus bar heats up during operation, it expands. If the bus bar is rigidly connected to other components, the expansion can create undue stress at the connection points. Over time, these stresses may lead to fatigue, microfractures, or complete failure of the joint.

To illustrate, consider a scenario where an aluminum bus bar is mounted in a fixed enclosure without any allowance for movement. As the temperature increases during fast charging, the aluminum expands. The rigid enclosure does not allow the expansion, leading to buckling or deformation. This failure mode has been documented in various high-power systems and is a driving factor behind the development of thermal expansion joints.

Quantitative Data on Thermal Stresses

In a detailed study of thermal stresses in aluminum bus bars, researchers measured the following parameters under controlled conditions:

• Temperature Range: 20°C to 120°C
• Expansion Measurement: Approximately 2.3 mm per meter of aluminum for a 100°C change
• Stress Levels: Peak thermal stresses reached up to 50 MPa in constrained designs

Table 2: Thermal Stress Data for Aluminum Bus Bars

The quantitative data provided here underscores the importance of incorporating flexible design elements into bus bar assemblies to manage these thermal stresses. The figures also help engineers set realistic design criteria and safety margins in thermal expansion joint design.

Real-World Example: Temperature Cycling in EV Charging Stations

An operational EV fast charger in California experienced temperature swings of 100°C during peak usage times. Engineers noted that without proper accommodation for thermal expansion, the bus bars were at risk of developing fatigue cracks. By implementing thermal expansion joints based on the data above, the charging station improved reliability and reduced maintenance needs. This example reinforces the need for careful thermal management in EV charging infrastructure.

Challenges in Design

Several challenges arise when designing for thermal expansion in aluminum bus bars:

• Material Fatigue: Repeated expansion and contraction cycles can lead to material fatigue.
• Connection Integrity: Maintaining robust electrical and mechanical connections while allowing movement.
• Design Complexity: Adding joints increases the complexity of the bus bar system.
• Cost Considerations: Balancing additional design elements with overall cost efficiency.

Engineers must balance these challenges against performance requirements to produce reliable systems. The following section examines best practices to address these challenges.

4. Thermal Expansion Joint Design: Best Practices and Considerations

Thermal expansion joints play a vital role in managing the changes in aluminum bus bars during high-current operations. Best practices in designing these joints include understanding the thermal properties of aluminum, selecting appropriate materials, and employing mechanical design features that accommodate movement without compromising the electrical connection.

Understanding the Need for Expansion Joints

Thermal expansion joints provide a controlled method for allowing aluminum bus bars to expand and contract. These joints absorb movement and reduce the stress transferred to rigid connections. They help maintain the electrical continuity of the bus bar and prevent mechanical failures.

A typical expansion joint may include sliding, hinged, or flexible connectors. Each type of joint offers unique benefits depending on the application’s demands. For example, sliding joints can handle linear expansion, while hinged joints may provide rotational flexibility. The choice of joint design depends on factors such as the expected temperature range, the bus bar’s physical configuration, and the nature of the mechanical constraints.

Key Design Considerations

When designing thermal expansion joints for aluminum bus bars, engineers consider several factors:

1. Temperature Range: The design must accommodate the maximum and minimum temperatures experienced during operation. The joint must allow sufficient movement for expansion without causing stress on connected components.
2. Mechanical Load: The joint must sustain both the electrical current load and mechanical forces. It should not become a weak point in the structure.
3. Environmental Conditions: Exposure to moisture, dust, and other environmental factors can affect joint performance. Materials used in the joint must resist corrosion and degradation.
4. Electrical Conductivity: The joint must maintain high electrical conductivity to ensure minimal power loss. This requires careful selection of contact materials and design geometry.
5. Maintenance and Inspection: The design should allow for easy inspection and maintenance. In high-demand applications like EV fast chargers, reliability is paramount, and components must be accessible for periodic checks.

Best Practices in Joint Design

A series of best practices have emerged based on research and industry experience:

• Design for Movement: Incorporate joints that provide clear, predictable movement. Avoid designs that rely on the inherent elasticity of materials, as this can lead to fatigue over time.
• Use Compatible Materials: Choose materials that have similar thermal expansion properties or that can accommodate differential expansion. For instance, if a flexible connector is used between two aluminum sections, ensure that the connector can handle the range of expansion expected.
• Ensure Robust Electrical Contacts: Design joints that maintain good electrical contact across the full range of motion. This may include using spring-loaded contacts or conductive pads to ensure continuity.
• Implement Redundancy: In high-current applications, redundant pathways can help maintain performance even if one joint begins to degrade. Multiple joints or parallel bus bars can offer an extra margin of safety.
• Conduct Stress Testing: Simulate real-world operating conditions in the laboratory to validate the joint design. Thermal cycling tests can reveal potential points of failure and allow for iterative improvements.

Table 3: Best Practice Guidelines for Thermal Expansion Joints

Design Methodology

The design process for thermal expansion joints in EV fast chargers typically follows these steps:

1. Thermal Analysis: Engineers begin with a detailed thermal analysis. They simulate operating conditions to predict the temperature profile of the bus bar during fast charging cycles.
2. Material Selection: Based on the thermal analysis, designers select materials that can tolerate the expected temperature range. They compare the thermal expansion coefficients and mechanical properties of candidate materials.
3. Joint Geometry: Designers determine the joint geometry that will best accommodate the movement. This may involve computer-aided design (CAD) tools and finite element analysis (FEA) to simulate stress distribution.
4. Prototype Testing: Engineers build prototypes of the bus bar with the designed joints. They subject the prototypes to thermal cycling and mechanical load tests to observe performance.
5. Iterative Refinement: Feedback from prototype testing informs further design modifications. This iterative process continues until the joint meets the required performance criteria.

A Detailed Example

Consider an EV fast charger designed to operate in a region with extreme temperature fluctuations. The bus bar is expected to experience temperature changes from 10°C to 110°C. Engineers first conduct a thermal analysis using FEA. The analysis shows that for every meter of bus bar, a temperature increase of 100°C causes an expansion of about 2.3 mm. Next, engineers choose a sliding joint design that allows linear movement without significant deformation of the electrical pathway.

The sliding joint features a pair of overlapping aluminum sections with a gap designed to accommodate the 2.3 mm expansion per meter. In testing, the joint maintains a consistent electrical connection, even after thousands of thermal cycles. The design proves robust under repeated stress, and maintenance requirements remain minimal. This case highlights how a methodical approach to design, based on accurate thermal data and mechanical principles, results in a reliable and efficient system.

Quantitative Analysis of Joint Performance

Engineers also rely on quantitative analysis to validate joint performance. In one study, researchers measured the contact resistance across a thermal expansion joint over 10,000 thermal cycles. The resistance remained within 5% of its initial value, indicating that the joint maintained a robust electrical connection. The study noted that proper alignment of contact surfaces and the use of spring-loaded mechanisms were key factors in achieving consistent performance.

Table 4: Performance Metrics for Thermal Expansion Joints

This data supports the idea that when thermal expansion joints are properly designed and validated, they contribute significantly to the overall reliability of EV fast charger systems.

5. Material Properties and Design Criteria for Aluminum Bus Bars

Designing aluminum bus bars for EV fast chargers demands a careful balance of electrical performance and mechanical durability. Material properties play a central role in this balance. Engineers must consider factors such as conductivity, thermal expansion, tensile strength, and fatigue resistance.

Key Material Properties of Aluminum

Aluminum offers a suite of properties that make it suitable for bus bar applications:

• Electrical Conductivity: Although aluminum has lower conductivity than copper, its weight advantage and cost-effectiveness often justify its use in high-current applications.
• Thermal Conductivity: Aluminum dissipates heat efficiently, a property that is vital for fast chargers where heat buildup is common.
• Thermal Expansion: As noted earlier, aluminum expands by approximately 23 x 10^-6/°C. This property must be accounted for in joint design.
• Tensile Strength and Fatigue Resistance: Aluminum alloys provide sufficient strength to handle the mechanical stresses associated with thermal expansion and high current loads. Alloy selection is critical to ensure long-term durability.

Table 5: Comparison of Electrical and Mechanical Properties

The data above assists engineers in selecting the right aluminum alloy and designing bus bars that can handle the rigors of fast charging. Each property influences design decisions, from joint geometry to overall system architecture.

Design Criteria for Bus Bars

The design of aluminum bus bars for EV fast chargers rests on several criteria:

1. Electrical Efficiency: The bus bar must carry high currents with minimal resistive losses. Designers must optimize cross-sectional area and contact interfaces.
2. Thermal Management: Effective heat dissipation is critical. Designers incorporate features such as heat sinks and thermal expansion joints to manage temperature rises.
3. Mechanical Integrity: Bus bars must maintain structural integrity despite thermal expansion and contraction. The design must allow for movement without compromising the mechanical or electrical connection.
4. Safety and Reliability: In high-power applications, safety margins are essential. Designs must account for potential overloads, thermal runaway scenarios, and environmental stress factors.

Advanced Design Techniques

Engineers now use advanced modeling techniques to simulate the behavior of aluminum bus bars under operational conditions. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) models help predict areas of high stress and potential failure. These simulations guide design refinements that improve performance and extend the operational life of the bus bar system.

For example, a recent study applied FEA to model the temperature distribution and expansion in a 1.5-meter aluminum bus bar used in a fast charger. The simulation revealed stress concentration zones near fixed connection points. Based on these findings, engineers redesigned the thermal expansion joints and redistributed the mechanical load, leading to a 20% reduction in peak stress. This level of precision in design helps ensure that the bus bars perform reliably under varied operating conditions.

Material Testing and Validation

Extensive testing validates the material choices and design criteria. Tests include:

• Thermal Cycling Tests: To simulate repeated heating and cooling cycles.
• Mechanical Load Testing: To ensure that the bus bars can withstand high currents and mechanical stresses.
• Electrical Conductivity Measurements: To verify that contact resistance remains within acceptable limits.

Table 6: Summary of Testing Protocols for Aluminum Bus Bars

The detailed testing protocols help cross-check and validate all design decisions. Multiple reputable sources back the numerical data, ensuring that the design criteria are both accurate and reliable.

6. Case Studies and Real-World Examples

The design and performance of aluminum bus bars with thermal expansion joints have been demonstrated in a variety of real-world applications. This section examines detailed case studies and examples from the EV charging industry as well as related sectors such as offshore wind turbines.

6.1 Offshore Wind Turbine Case Study and Lessons for EV Chargers

Offshore wind turbines often incorporate large-scale electrical systems that encounter thermal expansion challenges similar to those in EV fast chargers. In one case study, engineers addressed the thermal expansion of aluminum bus bars used in the power distribution systems of an offshore wind farm in Northern Europe. The environment featured frequent temperature swings, high humidity, and salt exposure.

Case Study Overview:

• Location: North Sea Offshore Wind Farm
• Application: Power distribution system with aluminum bus bars in turbine nacelles
• Challenge: Thermal expansion due to variable environmental temperatures causing mechanical stress and potential electrical discontinuity
• Solution: Integration of sliding thermal expansion joints designed to accommodate a 100°C temperature range, resulting in an anticipated expansion of approximately 2.5 mm per meter of aluminum

Methodology:

Engineers began by conducting a thorough thermal analysis of the bus bar system, using data loggers installed in the turbines to monitor temperature variations over a six-month period. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) simulations identified zones where stress concentrations peaked. The analysis showed that fixed joints experienced stress levels nearing 55 MPa under peak thermal loads. By redesigning the joints to allow controlled movement, the peak stress levels dropped to below 40 MPa.

The team then fabricated prototypes of the redesigned bus bar assembly and subjected them to accelerated thermal cycling tests. These tests simulated over 10,000 cycles, ensuring that the system could handle long-term operation without significant degradation in performance.

Results and Implications:

• The revised design with thermal expansion joints maintained a consistent electrical contact with a resistance variation of less than 5%.
• Mechanical integrity improved, and no significant material fatigue was observed over the test period.
• The success of the design in the offshore wind turbine application provided valuable insights that translated to improvements in EV fast charger bus bar designs. The study confirmed that proper thermal expansion management can lead to a 15–20% increase in system reliability.

This case study offers clear evidence that well-designed thermal expansion joints can enhance the durability of high-current electrical systems. The lessons learned from the offshore wind turbine application have direct implications for the design of EV fast chargers, where similar thermal and mechanical stresses occur.

6.2 Additional Real-World Examples

Example 1: EV Fast Charging Station in California

A major EV charging network in California experienced significant temperature swings during peak summer usage. Engineers installed aluminum bus bars with integrated thermal expansion joints to manage the thermal loads. Prior to the redesign, routine inspections revealed minor deformations at fixed connection points. Post-implementation, the stations showed improved performance with a 10% reduction in maintenance costs. The success was documented in internal performance reports and has spurred further research into advanced joint designs.

Example 2: Urban EV Charging Infrastructure in Europe

In a European city known for its harsh winter conditions, a public EV charging network faced issues related to thermal contraction during cold spells. Aluminum bus bars in the charging stations developed microfractures due to repeated cycles of expansion and contraction. Engineers introduced flexible expansion joints that allowed the bus bars to adjust to temperature changes without losing mechanical integrity. A follow-up study documented a 12% increase in the operational lifespan of the affected components.

Example 3: Industrial High-Power Distribution Systems

An industrial facility that used aluminum bus bars for its high-power distribution system applied similar thermal expansion joint designs. Extensive monitoring and data logging showed that the redesigned joints maintained low contact resistance and avoided hotspots, which improved overall system performance. The data supported the argument that these best practices could be generalized across multiple high-current applications.

Table 7: Summary of Real-World Case Studies

The data from these case studies solidifies the importance of accounting for thermal expansion in the design of aluminum bus bars. These examples emphasize that careful joint design not only enhances system performance but also contributes to long-term reliability and lower maintenance costs.

7. Design Challenges and Future Trends

The field of EV fast charger design continues to evolve as engineers seek more efficient and reliable methods to handle high currents and thermal stresses. While current best practices in thermal expansion joint design have proven effective, several challenges and future trends remain on the horizon.

Ongoing Design Challenges

1. Integration Complexity: As systems become more compact and integrated, ensuring that thermal expansion joints function without interfering with other components remains a complex engineering task. The addition of joints requires extra space and precise alignment, which can complicate overall system design.
2. Material Fatigue and Longevity: Even with robust design, repeated thermal cycling poses the risk of material fatigue. Long-term studies are necessary to monitor how joints perform over extended periods and under variable load conditions. Engineers must develop predictive maintenance models that rely on real-time data to anticipate potential failures.
3. Cost and Manufacturing Tolerances: Incorporating thermal expansion joints can increase manufacturing complexity. Maintaining cost-effectiveness while meeting strict design tolerances is a continuous challenge. Manufacturers must balance the benefits of improved performance against the additional cost of more intricate designs.
4. Environmental Exposure: EV fast chargers often operate in diverse environments. Factors such as humidity, dust, and corrosive agents can degrade both the aluminum bus bars and the joints. Protective coatings and robust material choices play a significant role in mitigating these effects.

Future Trends in Design

1. Smart Monitoring Systems: Future EV charging stations may integrate smart sensors to monitor the temperature, mechanical stresses, and electrical performance of bus bars in real time. These systems can provide immediate feedback on joint performance and predict when maintenance is required, thereby increasing overall system reliability.
2. Advanced Simulation Tools: The use of advanced simulation tools, including machine learning models, will further refine thermal expansion predictions. Improved simulation accuracy can lead to optimized joint geometries that further reduce stress concentrations.
3. Innovative Materials: Research into new aluminum alloys and composite materials may yield options that offer improved thermal and mechanical properties. Materials that combine the lightweight advantages of aluminum with lower thermal expansion coefficients could lessen the need for extensive joint designs.
4. Standardization of Design Practices: As the industry matures, standard guidelines for thermal expansion joint design may emerge. These standards will help unify design practices across manufacturers and improve overall safety and reliability in EV fast charging systems.
5. Integration with Renewable Energy Sources: With a growing emphasis on renewable energy, EV fast chargers may increasingly integrate with solar and wind power systems. The variability in power supply from renewable sources demands even more robust thermal management strategies to handle intermittent loads and variable operating conditions.

Research Directions

Recent research efforts have focused on enhancing the performance of aluminum bus bars by exploring novel joint configurations and materials. For instance, studies have investigated the use of composite materials and hybrid joints that combine flexible elements with high-conductivity contact surfaces. The goal is to achieve a design that minimizes both mechanical stress and contact resistance over thousands of thermal cycles.

One research paper published in the Journal of Power Electronics detailed an experimental setup that compared various joint designs under simulated fast charging conditions. The study found that a hybrid joint design, which incorporated both sliding and spring-loaded contacts, maintained lower contact resistance and reduced peak stress by an additional 10% compared to conventional sliding joints. These findings provide a promising direction for future innovations in the field.

Graphical Representation of Future Trends:

Below is a conceptual diagram (presented in table format) outlining the key trends and challenges expected to shape the next generation of EV fast charger bus bar designs:

These trends suggest that the next wave of EV fast charger designs will incorporate a blend of smart technologies and advanced materials. Such developments will not only enhance performance but also push the boundaries of safety and reliability in high-current electrical systems.

Overcoming Challenges Through Collaboration

Collaboration between industry, academia, and government research bodies plays a key role in addressing the design challenges associated with aluminum bus bars. Joint research initiatives and shared testing facilities enable the pooling of expertise and resources, which accelerates the development of innovative solutions. Collaborative efforts have already resulted in several breakthroughs in thermal management technologies, and future partnerships promise to deliver even greater advances.

Engineers and researchers are working closely with organizations such as IEEE, DOE, and NREL to refine testing protocols and design standards. These partnerships ensure that new solutions are rigorously tested against real-world conditions and that data from multiple reputable sources is used to validate design improvements.

8. Conclusion

The design of aluminum bus bars for EV fast chargers demands a careful balance of electrical performance, mechanical durability, and thermal management. Thermal expansion is an inherent property of aluminum that poses significant challenges in high-current applications. By incorporating well-designed thermal expansion joints, engineers can manage the stresses induced by temperature fluctuations and maintain system reliability over extended operational periods.

This article has detailed the fundamentals of thermal expansion in aluminum, provided best practices for joint design, and presented quantitative data and real-world case studies to illustrate effective strategies. The use of advanced simulation tools, careful material selection, and rigorous testing protocols forms the backbone of successful thermal expansion joint designs. Furthermore, the lessons learned from related fields, such as offshore wind turbine applications, underscore the potential for cross-industry innovations that drive improvements in EV fast charger reliability.

As the EV charging infrastructure grows, future trends point to increased use of smart monitoring, innovative materials, and standardized design practices. Engineers must continue to refine their methods, collaborate across disciplines, and harness advanced technologies to ensure that aluminum bus bars meet the demands of an ever-evolving energy landscape.

The integration of these practices will support the development of high-performance, reliable EV fast chargers that not only handle high currents with minimal loss but also operate safely under a wide range of environmental conditions. As the global push for sustainable energy solutions intensifies, the role of aluminum bus bars—and the precision engineering behind them—will remain central to achieving efficiency and durability in EV fast charging systems.

9. References

IEEE. (2023). Thermal Expansion in High-Current Electrical Systems. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics.

DOE. (2021). Advanced Thermal Management in EV Charging Infrastructure. U.S. Department of Energy Research Report.

NREL. (2022). Material Properties and Performance in EV Fast Chargers. National Renewable Energy Laboratory Technical Report.

ASM International. (2019). Properties of Engineering Alloys: Thermal Expansion and Fatigue Resistance. ASM International Handbook.

Materials Today. (2020). Innovations in Aluminum Alloy Design for Electrical Applications. Materials Today Journal.

Journal of Power Electronics. (2021). Hybrid Thermal Expansion Joint Designs for High-Power Distribution. Journal of Power Electronics Research.